SCIENCE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS            SCI520

 Does your interest in science exceed your knowledge?  Do you sometimes wish you had taken more science classes in high school and college?  Are you being encouraged to expand the science curriculum in your classroom?

 The need to teach science early is well documented.  The Science Framework for California Public Schools specifies that elementary science programs must "provide a balanced curriculum in the physical, earth, and life sciences" and "involve students in ‘doing science.'"  But many teachers are reluctant to introduce more science because their own background in science is limited.

Course Description

    Science for Elementary Teachers is a new course centered on science activities based on the six themes of the Science Framework for California Public Schools, the science content underpinning those activities and the classroom pedagogy needed to conduct the activities.

    From this starting point, the science content for each of the six themes will be expanded, using an integrated approach which will link earth, physical, biological and environmental science.

    Each student will develop a science unit lesson plan for each thematic topic.  Additionally, connections between the themes and their integration into the curriculum will be considered.   The science activities for each theme are those featured in Occidental's Bridges Program.

    This course will help the elementary teacher develop a basic understanding of the scientific process and the unifying concepts of the natural sciences.  The instructors will provide a supportive classroom environment and the opportunity to explore science concepts and processes.

    This course is a graduate level course, offered as part of the M.A.T. program at Occidental College.

Science Themes

The Science Framework for California Public Schools points out that "Science can be organized in many ways"; a thematic arrangement "should be regarded as only one way to integrate the overarching concepts of science into a curriculum that spans scientific disciplines.  The suggested arrangement of themes is designed to encompass and connect a great deal of the basic data and evidence of science."

The major themes considered by the Framework are:

  #ENERGY
  #EVOLUTION
  #PATTERNS OF CHANGE
  #SCALE & STRUCTURE
  #STABILITY
  #SYSTEMS & INTERACTIONS
 
The following is a preliminary site, still very much in development.  The notes displayed are culled from the science section of a review course for the MSAT.


ENERGY

Definition: ability to do work

Ultimate source:   creation of universe, nuclear fusion/fission, conversion of mass to energy (E=mc2).

Sources on earth: sun (as it undergoes nuclear fusion), nuclear energy from earth's core

Conversion of types of energy:

Examples of cycles: Good place for concept diagrams/flow charts
 

To discuss:

conduction/convection/radiation
Newton's laws/gravitation/motion/momentum/inertia/work
temperature vs. heat/absolute zero/calories
photosynthesis/carbon cycle/chlorophyll
magnetism/electricity/electric current/
solar/sun/stars/quasars

EVOLUTION

Evolution can be described as change over time; virtually all natural entities change through time.  However, all change is not evolution.  Need to distinquish between change due to "aging/growth/choice" and "evolution" which might be described as ??  Compare evolutionary change in airplanes, where new models reflected change, as opposed to change in a single model (color, kind of landing gear, etc.)

Earth has evolved. . . changed from its original formation.  Internal energy (rock cycle, tectonics) and external forces (meteorites, solar energy) have combined to produce changed in land masses, oceans, atmosphere.  The entire universe has seen changes in galaxies, stars, planetary systems, expansion.  Likewise the life forms on earth have changed in response to stimuli from their environment.

 rock cycle/heated or melted rock less dense, squeezes upward.  colls at surface, /erosion/exposure /weathering/alluvium sediment deposits/burial to zones of higher temp force recrstallization to rock, eventually melt to magma
 types of rocks/formation/page 296-299/extrusive/intrusive/lithification/
 earth movements/continental drift/fault/fold/tectonic/

The effort to survive and reproduce is counteracted by the environment which offers various threats to an organism's survival.  Organisms with any sort of advantage are more likely to survive than those without.  Reproductive methods have evolved to enable adaptation to changing environments.

 ecology: relationship of organisims to their environment/natural selection
 

The more primitive reproduction, mitosis, consists of cells dividing the nuclear material to produce identical daughter cells (asexual reproduction).  Thus, the organism remains the same unless some outside agent causes change (mutation) to the cell.  Since mutation is generally rare, little change in the organism is expected over time.  More advanced organisms reproduce by sexual reproduction, or meiosis.  Special cells, called gametes or haploid cells, are produced with only half the normal amount of genetic information.  These special cells then join with others from a different individual to produce new patterns of genetic information in diploid, zygote cells.  This process provides large variation in the genetic makeup of individuals, producing varying traits, some of which supply various sorts of survival advantages.

 mitosis/nuclear material is divided between newer cells to produce identical cells/reproduction/asexual. . . mitosis/sexual. . . meiosis/split chromosomes/haploid cells with only half normal # of chromosomes called gametes/join with another haploid cells to produce new patterns in diploid zygote cells/cross-pollination/fertilization
 DNA/RNA/genes/chromosomes/purebred/hybrid/dominance/recessive/ mutation/trait
 

Evidence from fossil records indicate that the variety of life forms has increased over time; this increase is relatively continuous. . .there is not some specific period when increase occurred followed by stagnation.

 evolution: fossil organisms are different/ farther back in time/organisms diverge more / variation in life forms appears to be relatively continuous/taxonomy
 other evidence:biogeography, embryology,homolology,biochemistry

It is important to recognize that the "Theory of Evolution" is a theory in the scientific sense.  The facts are that organisms change and develop over time; later organisms seem more specifically adapted to their environment than earlier ones.  Evolution is consistent with those facts and explains the observations which scientists have made.  A scientific theory is not a guess.

Like organisms, technology has evolved over time.  Instruments, processes and techniques have changed.  These changes are interdependent.  Evolution of energy sources. . .from man powered cranks to water wheels to motors. . .made possible increased speeds.  Evolution of measuring devices. . . from natural objects (feet, seeds, estimation, armlengths) to machined objects (the gold meter stick) to precise definitions (10-7 of the earth's quadrant through Paris in 1790 or 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red radiation of Kr86 in a vacuum). . . made possible increased precision of construction, thus interchangeable parts, thus the industrial revolution.
life responds to environment/maintain & grow/reproduce
mitosis/nuclear material is divided between newer cells to produce identical cells/
reproduction/asexual. . . mitosis/
  sexual. . . meiosis/split chromosomes/haploid cells with only half normal # of chromosomes called gametes/join with another haploid cells to produce new patterns in diploid zygote cells/cross-pollination/fertilization
DNA/RNA/genes/chromosomes/purebred/hybrid/dominance/recessive/mutation/trait
evolution: fossil organisms are different/ farther back in time/organisms diverge more / variation in life forms appears to be relatively continuous/taxonomy
other evidence:biogeography, embryology,homolology,biochemistry
ecology: relationship of organisims to their environment/natural selection

method of using the present to interpret the past is called uniformitarianism (similar effects were caused by similar processes)
rock cycle/heated or melted rock less dense, squeezes upward.  colls at surface, /erosion/exposure /weathering/alluvium sediment deposits/burial to zones of higher temp roce recrstallization to rock, eventually melt to magma
 types of rocks/formation/page 296-299/extrusive/intrusive/lithification/
earth movements/continental drift/fault/fold/tectonic/
paleontology

astronomy/stars evolution/giant stars/novas/dwarves
 expansion/big bang

technology/change over time/development of techniques, instruments makes possible technical change

PATTERNS OF CHANGE

Change occurs at varying rates: geological-too slow to be apparent within a human lifetime, but detectible in various ways/biological-generally noticeable to human observer/chemical-in some cases too fast to be detected without specialized instruments

The formation and breakage of chemical bonds individually occurs very rapidly, although the cumulative rate of such change may be very slow.  Thus, solid rock in a crystalline form may release individual atoms to solution in a detectible amount only over very long periods of time.  Rocks dissolve to produce caverns, canyons, etc.  Solid water (ice) melts to the liquid form whenever the temperature rises above the melting point, but sublimes to the gas phase much more slowly at lower temperatures.

 Atoms/elements/compounds/bonds/solids/liquids/gases/water/solution/
alkali metals/alloy/atom/compound/element/mixture/molecule/saturated/solute/solvent

Individual plants and animals change over their lifetimes, but the basic structure and nature of the species changes only very slowly.  Although change occurs, the individual remains the same in essence.

Changes in the earth result from the rock cycle: heating in earth's core, melting and flow of hotter/less dense rock to the surface, cooling/weathering/tectonic effects to cause changes and eventual submersion/subduction into earth's core again.  Tectonic effects are also noticeable over long periods of time, although some changes are catastrophic and fast paced (earthquakes/ volcanoes/etc).

 Earth's structure/minerals/rocks/rock cycle/natural resources/ meteorology/basalt/coal/conglomerate/crust/extrusive/Igneous/intrusive/karst/laterite/lava/limestone/lithification/lithology/mineral/pertroleum/plutonic/ sedimentary/stalactite/stalagmite/strata/

Sound and light exhibit patterns in the regularity of the wavelengths involved.

 density/doppler effect/refraction/spectrum/

Likewise, the earth's rotation and revolution around the sun produce changes in seasons, daylight hours, etc. which follow a predictable pattern.

 earth/seasons/moon/eclipses/

The crystal activity focuses on the patterns of crystals; their regularity.  Change is not a strong aspect of this activity.  Crystals form in regular patterns, dependent on the chemical bonds involved.  If melted or dissolved, the crystals will reform after cooling or evaporation.

Solubility is dependent on the solute and solvent. . .for instance, NaCl is very soluble in water, only very slightly soluble in alcohol.

Quantity of solute is affected by temperature of the solvent. . .warmer dissolves more.  If a saturated solution is cooled slowly, an excess of solute may remain in solution for some time if left undisturbed.  When disturbed. . . by agitation or introduction of a seed crystal, the solute may rapidly fall out of solution.  When solvent cools and evaporates slowly, atoms have the opportunity to deposit slowly and regularly into a larger crystal.  When more rapid deposition occurs, many smaller crystals are likely to form.

Note difference: Crystals which come out of solution when cooled are called precipitates, but they can be redissolved in the solvent if heated.   A precipitate can also be an insoluble compound formed by mixing two or more components in solution.  Once formed, it can not be redissolved in the solvent.

 Youngsters often say that the solute "melts" when it goes into solution; this is incorrect.  MELT refers to a phase change. . . a substance changes from solid to liquid with heat.  Dissolution refers to a substance dissolving in a separate substance, usually a liquid.  Note that neither the solute nor the solvent is restricted to one phase.  Liquids can dissolve in liquids, gases, and solids.  Gases can dissolve in liquids and solids, as can solids. [need examples of these]
 

Earth's structure/minerals/rocks/rock cycle/natural resources/meteorology/
basalt/coal/conglomerate/crust/extrusive/Igneous/intrusive/karst/laterite/lava/limestone/ lithification/lithology/mineral/pertroleum/plutonic/sedimentary/stalactite/stalagmite/strata/

Atoms/elements/compounds/bonds/solids/liquids/gases/water/solution/
alkali metals/alloy/atom/compund/element/mixture/molecule/saturated/solute/solvent

density/doppler effect/refraction/spectrum/

earth/seasons/moon/eclipses/

SCALE & STRUCTURE

Scientists categorize most living things by their structure.

taxonomy:Kingdom,phylum,class,order,family,genus,species/animal phyla:porifera through chordata ( pg284)

Most things can be reduced to simpler parts but ultimately we arrive at a smallest identifiable part.  In biology, the cell represents the smallest amount of living matter/cell parts
In chemistry, it is the atom which is the smallest particles of chemical elements  molecule/subatomic particles

Appropriate scale must be selected for an investigation: It is necessary to note the position of a rabbit more often than that of a turtle in order to describe their travels.

 geological time scale:cenozoic/mesozoic/paleozoic/precambrian

 measurement/scientific notation/metric system:meter,liter,gram,light year

The structure of objects affects their properties.  Thus, giant metal ships float because of the way they are constructed.

Mass vs. weight; difference in space, when floating, etc.

 density/buoyancy/mass/capillarity/

Scale models can be used to study objects under the proper conditions.

STABILITY

Stability results from equilibrium.  Equilibrium is sometimes called steady state.  When all forces on a system are balanced, the system is stable and does not change. Stability can result when a system is balanced and unchanging; it can also result when changes occur, but in such a way as to balance out each other.  Thus a leaking pail with a thin stream of water running into it might be said to contain a stable amount of water if the entering water balances the leak.

 motion/velocity/acceleration/position/inertia/newton's laws/action-reaction

Successful organisms remain stable; they reproduce similar organisms which will be successful in the same environment.  But an unsuccessful organism will either die off or modify in some way to make it more successful.

 cell as unit of life/metabolism : assimilation,photosynthesis, digestion and respiration/result to store energy as ATP/Krebs cycle
 primitive plants:algae, fungi/no roots, stems, leaves
 more advanced:ferns-no seeds-no fertilization/gymnosperms/angiosperms-flowers
 animals:no photosynthesis/sensory system/similarity of forms
 DNA/genes/

Likewise our solar system is stable; although planets move at different speeds in different orbits, the net effect is to balance the gravitational forces on all the planetary bodies involved.  The earth itself might be said to be unstable; the forces resulting from heat in the core cause the earth's surface to change and move.

 geological time scale/ earth's structure:core,mantle,crust,
 earth/orbit/seasons/moon/eclipses/phases/planets/

Chemical stability of a single molecule, of a system, can result from balanced changes as well as from a static state.

 atomic structure/elements/octet rule/bonds/electrically neutral/

Angiosperms (flowering plants) are the predominant plant class.  The structure of flowers has resulted in successful reproduction, and thus that structure is a stable part of angiosperms.

Discuss monocots & dicots for the activity.

SYSTEMS & INTERACTIONS

Systems include multiple entities which interact with one another.

 solids/liquids/gases/gas laws/water/solution/ions/acids-bases/electrolysis/
 acid/base/carbon dioxide/compound/diffusion/distillation/evaporation/freezing point/hydrolysis/litmus/mixture/molecule/organic compound/pH/saturated /solute/solvent

The systems of animals are most familiar:

 Metabolic
 Sensory
 Nervous
 Circulatory
 Reproductive
Plants also have systems: transport/reproductive/metabolic?

 Adrenaline/aminoacid/antibody/aorta/artery/bile/capillary/cell/chlorophyll /cold-blooded/enzyme/hormone/insulin/organ/photosynthesis /symbiosis/transpiration/tropism

Many systems have internal checks and balances to maintain function.  The human body regulates respiration by monitoring the oxygen level of the blood, etc.

Most relevant to this activity is the water cycle of earth:

solar energy vaporizes water, which collects in weather systems in the atmosphere.  The water vapor moves through the atmosphere due to currents (jet stream/wind/convection) and eventually cools, condenses and precipitates to earth.  It either collects on the surface, flows into water courses, and eventually to the oceans, or, it is absorbed into the earth and percolates through soil to ground water and underground streams, and thence to the oceans.  Some small portion of the water is withdrawn from wells, collected in resevoirs to be purified for use, or evaporated from the land, but the vast majority ultimately returns to the oceans.

Water which is collected for use can be categorized in three ways: local ground water which is recovered from wells, etc., local runoff water which flows from the surface to streams to resevoirs, and imported water, which is collected in other regions and transported by pipe or aqueduct to the local area.

  weathering/erosion/oceans/natural resources /aquifer/delta/cloud./erosion/evaporation/front/precipitation/water table /karst/laterite/limestone/mineral

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

                            theory/fact/hypothesis
Selected Definitions from various texts:
General Chemistry/Beckman&Wentworth/pg 5
 Collection of data
 Evaluation of data; analysis of the interdependence of data
  Development of a law that describes the variation in the data or expresses it mathematically
 Development of a theory (or theoretical model) that is used to derive or explain the law
General Chemistry with Questions & Answers/Petrucci&Wismer/pg 2
 deduction: must assume something to start, then law evolves (geometry)

 induction: use observations (not assumptions) to formulate law
 experiment: to see if law correctly predicts results
 hypothesis:tentative explanation of law
 if successfully tested, becomes theory

 "theory is a conceptual framework with which one is able to explain one or a group of related natural laws"

Chemistry-Principles&Practice/Reger,Goode&Mercer/pg 3
 hypothesis-possible explanation for an event, even if untested
 law-statement that summarizes a large number of observations
 theory-explanation of a law
Biological Sciences/Keaton/pg 3
 observation of objects or events
 analyze data and fit into a pattern or generalization
 test generalization
 elevate to theory if tests support

  A theory is a hypothesis that has been repeatedly and extensively tested and always found to be true.  It is supported by the facts and helps order and explain those facts.

Metric system
orders of magnitude
math significant figures